In the absence of any indication to the contrary, the

Practical application:

The case law confirms that judges named in a judgment are presumed to have deliberated unless proven otherwise. The landlord should rely on this presumption: the burden is on the tenant to prove the irregularity. Keep the original judgment showing the judges' names, gather all rent statements and lease correspondence, and note the two-month appeal deadline for the tenant. If the appeal proceeds, respond within the required time limits and consider consulting a French real estate lawyer.

Practical application:

Under this case law, the buyer can rely on the presumption that the judges listed in the judgment participated in the deliberation. The seller must present evidence to the contrary. The buyer should keep the judgment, all survey reports, the sale deed, and any correspondence with the seller about the defect. Respond to the appeal within the legal time limit and seek legal advice to enforce the compensation.

Practical application:

The case law establishes that the judges named in the judgment are presumed to have deliberated unless the syndic proves otherwise. The co-owner should cite this presumption and keep all meeting minutes, charge breakdowns, and the court judgment. Note the one-month appeal deadline for the syndic. Respond to the appeal promptly and consider consulting a lawyer to defend the ruling.